Doctorado en Medicina
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Item Evaluación de uso racional de anticoagulación y tromboprofilaxis en fibrilación auricular crónica y su relación con utilización de escala CHAD2-DS2-VASC en Hospital Nacional “Nuestra Señora de Fátima” Cojutepeque, agosto 2024-agosto 2025.(Universidad de El Salvador. Facultad de Medicina, 2025-11) Aguilar Ventura, Toni Alberto; Solano Álvarez, Carlos Ernesto; Abarca, Maurcio Antonio; av13003@ues.edu.sv; sa23043@ues.edu.svLa fibrilación auricular es la arritmia sostenida más frecuente y constituye un importante factor de riesgo para eventos tromboembólicos. En El Salvador no existen evaluaciones sistemáticas sobre el uso racional de la anticoagulación ni sobre la aplicación clínica de la escala CHA₂DS₂-VASc. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar el uso adecuado de anticoagulantes y tromboprofilaxis en pacientes con fibrilación auricular atendidos en el Hospital Nacional Nuestra Señora de Fátima de Cojutepeque entre agosto de 2024 y agosto de 2025. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo de corte transversal con revisión de expedientes y aplicación de la escala CHA₂DS₂-VASc a 106 pacientes. El 69% presentó indicación formal de anticoagulación; sin embargo, solo el 25% recibió el tratamiento adecuado. El subuso alcanzó el 75%, y el uso de antiagregantes fue universal, aunque insuficiente en alto riesgo. Los resultados evidencian una brecha importante entre la indicación terapéutica y la práctica clínica, señalando la necesidad de protocolos institucionales y capacitación médica. Abstract: Atrial fibrillation is the most common sustained arrhythmia and a major risk factor for thromboembolic events, particularly stroke. In El Salvador, no systematic evaluations exist regarding the rational use of anticoagulation or the clinical application of the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score. This study aimed to assess the appropriate use of anticoagulants and thromboprophylaxis and their relationship with the application of the CHA₂DS₂-VASc scale in patients with atrial fibrillation treated at the National Hospital Nuestra Señora de Fátima in Cojutepeque between August 2024 and August 2025. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted through the review of physical and digital records, applying the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score to 106 eligible patients. Although 69% of patients had a formal indication for anticoagulation, only 25% received appropriate therapy. Underuse reached 75%, while antiplatelet therapy was prescribed universally, despite being insufficient for high-risk patients. These findings reveal a significant gap between recommended therapeutic guidelines and clinical practice, underscoring the need for institutional protocols, systematic risk assessment, and strengthened medical training.Item Caracterización clínica de los pacientes que consultan por infertilidad masculina y tratamiento medico empleado en el Hospital Nacional de la Mujer en el periodo de enero a diciembre del 2023.(Universidad de El Salvador. Facultad de Medicina, 2025-11) Ortega Morales, Katherine Michelle; Castro Zetino, Clarissa; om14027@ues.edu.svLa infertilidad se define como la incapacidad para concebir tras un año de relaciones sexuales sin protección anticonceptiva. Esta puede deberse a factores femeninos y masculinos; reconociendo que este último puede ser la única causa de infertilidad alrededor del 20% de las parejas estériles o ser factor contribuyente en un 20 al 40%. Para su diagnóstico, se deben tomar en cuenta la historia clínica, examen físico y estudios de laboratorio que orientaran el diagnóstico y tratamiento adecuado. En el presente estudio tiene por Objetivo describir la caracterización clínica de los pacientes que consultan por infertilidad masculina y tratamiento médico empleado en el Hospital Nacional de la Mujer en periodo de enero a diciembre 2023. Metodología se realizó un estudio retrospectivo, descriptivo y de corte transversal. Se recolectó la información a través de un instrumento, posteriormente se vaciaron los datos en el programa Excel para analizarlos a través de tablas de frecuencia y su representación en tablas de frecuencias y gráficos de barras. Resultados: de toda la población que corresponde a 200 pacientes, únicamente 75 cumplían los criterios de inclusión, se encontró que los principales antecedentes médicos de los pacientes que consultan por infertilidad masculina son obesidad 5.3%, luego diabetes mellitus 2.6% e hipertensión 1.3%. No se reportó antecedentes quirúrgicos en un 74.6% y el 25.3% restante no tenía antecedentes de cirugías que pudiera estar afectado la fertilidad masculina. De los hábitos que se encontraron el principal fue el consumo de bebidas alcohólicas en un 5.3% y tabaquismo 4%. De las alteraciones encontradas en los espermogramas se encontró la teratospermia en el 57.3%, oligospermia 48% y astenospermia 26.6%. Siendo los tratamientos más frecuentes: antibioterapia en el 54.6%, moduladores selectivos de receptores de estrógeno 13.3 % y el uso de micronutrientes como el Zinc en un 10.6%. Abstract: Infertility is defined as the inability to conceive after one year of unprotected sexual intercourse. This can be due to female and male factors; recognizing that the latter may be the sole cause of infertility in approximately 20% of infertile couples or a contributing factor in 20 to 40%. For its diagnosis, the medical history, physical examination, and laboratory studies must be taken into account to guide the diagnosis and appropriate treatment. The objective of this study is to describe the clinical characteristics of patients seeking consultation for male infertility and the medical treatment used at the National Women's Hospital from January to December 2023. A retrospective, descriptive, and cross-sectional study was conducted. Information was collected using an instrument, and the data were subsequently entered into Excel for analysis using frequency tables and their representation in frequency charts and bar graphs. Results: Of the total population of 200 patients, only 75 met the inclusion criteria. The main medical history factors of patients consulting for male infertility were obesity (5.3%), followed by diabetes mellitus (2.6%) and hypertension (1.3%). No surgical history was reported in 74.6% of cases, and the remaining 25.3% had no history of surgeries that could be affecting male fertility. The most common lifestyle habits were alcohol consumption (5.3%) and smoking (4%). Semen analysis abnormalities included teratospermia (57.3%), oligospermia (48%), and asthenospermia (26.6%). The most frequent treatments were antibiotic therapy (54.6%), selective estrogen receptor modulators (13.3%), and the use of micronutrients such as zinc (10.6%).Item Predictive In Silico Epigenomic Molecular Analysis of the Aspergillus salvadorensis Sequence(International Journal of Nanotechnology and Allied Sciences, 2026-06-04) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThe epigenomic analysis of the Aspergillus salvadorensis sequence shows a highly complex regulatory architecture, in which epigenetic mechanisms, hydrolytic enzymatic activity and antifungal resistance systems converge. The detection of regions enriched in CpG dinucleotides, together with the presence of repetitive sequences, suggests the existence of regulation mediated by DNA methylation and chromatin remodeling, key processes in transcriptional control in filamentous fungi. These epigenetic characteristics probably modulate the expression of genes involved inthe degradation of polysaccharides, including enzymes of the glycosyl hydrolases and glucanase family, as well as genes associated with cellular defense mechanisms, such as transporters of the ABC (ATP-Binding Cassette) and MFS (Major Facilitator Superfamily) families. The coexistence of these elements suggests that A. salvadorensishas a dynamic regulatory network that allows it to optimize its adaptive response to fluctuating environmental conditions and chemical stress. The open reading frame (ORF) predicted by ORF 190 is achieved by translating the sequence into protein, this corresponds to a linear polypeptide of approximately 172 amino acids, consistent with the previous gene prediction. The analysis of its sequence reveals a high density of residues susceptible to post-translational modifications, including lysines (K), arginines (R), serines (S), threonine (T) and tyrosines (Y), which constitute potential sites of functional regulation. Acetylation of lysine residues suggests a role in modulating protein activity and mediating protein-protein interactions. Methylation in lysines and arginines indicates possible roles in epigenetic regulation and in the formation of macromolecular complexes. Likewise, phosphorylation in serine, threonine and tyrosine residues points to the participation of this protein in kinase-dependent cell signaling pathways, which supports its probable role in regulatory processes. The sequence presents a high density of widely distributed CpG sites susceptible to methylation, while acetylation and phosphorylation are inferred indirectly as a function of the structural and functional context of the chromatin, without corresponding to defined positions within the linear DNA sequence. These results reinforce the close relationship between epigenetic mechanisms and metabolic functionality in filamentous fungi, highlighting the biotechnological potential of A. salvadorensisin processes that require both degradative capacity and tolerance to antifungal compoundsItem Characterization of the Catalase Gene in Aspergillus salvadorensis 1 and its Role in Oxidative Stress(International Journal of Nanotechnology and Allied Sciences, 2026-06-04) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svIn this study, a genomic sequence of approximately 1,980 base pairs obtained by nextgeneration Illumina sequencing was analyzed of the Aspergillus salvadorensis, with the aim of identifying functional elements associated with the adaptation of the organism. The bioinformatic analysis allowed the detection of an open reading framework whose conceptual translation evidenced high homology with enzymes of the catalase family. The presence of conserved domains and key residues associated with the active site confirmed its role in hydrogen peroxide detoxification. These results are integrated with the relevance of uridine monophosphate biosynthesis and epigenetic regulation, essential processes for growth and stress response. Taken together, it is proposed that the interaction between these systems confers a significant adaptive advantage on Aspergillus salvadorensis in its natural environment. Catalase acts as a shield against the immune system. The catalase produced by the fungus acts as a critical defense mechanism by neutralizing reactive oxygen species, allowing it to survive the host's immune system and facilitating the progression of the infection. In this process, the catalase gene, specifically the catA type, is prominently expressed in the conidia to protect the spore during its dormant state and ensure its resistance to adverse environmental factors such as heat, desiccation, and ultraviolet radiation.Item Regulation of Growth and Molecular Morphogenesis by Uridine Monophosphate Biosynthesis in Aspergillus salvadorensis(PSM Microbiology, 2026-06-04) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThe biosynthesis of uridine monophosphate (UMP) represents an essential metabolic pathway in filamentous fungi, providing pyrimidine nucleotides necessary for the synthesis of DNA, RNA and various cellular metabolites. In Aspergillus salvadorensis, this pathway plays a central role not only in replication and gene expression, but also in the regulation of growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis. In this study, a bioinformatics analysis of a genomic sequence of approximately 23 kb was performed, using open reading frame prediction tools (ORFs) and functional databases such as KEGG, MetaCyc and EggNOG, with the aim of identifying genes associated with the UMP biosynthesis I, II and III pathways. The results showed a high density of ORFs, including regions with similarity to pyrE and pyrG genes, encoding key enzymes such as orotate phosphoribosyltransferase and orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase. Likewise, the presence of the three metabolic pathways of UMP synthesis, both de novo and rescue, supported by relevant functional annotations (PWY-7790, PWY-7791 and PWY-5686) was identified. The organization into possible gene clusters and the presence of regulatory elements suggest a coordinated control of gene expression. Also noteworthy is an ORF (ORF190) with structural characteristics compatible with active metabolic enzymes. These findings indicate that Aspergillus salvadorensishas complete and functional machinery for the biosynthesis of UMP, which favors its growth, reproduction and adaptation to variable environmental conditions, consolidating this pathway as a key metabolic axis in its physiologyItem Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Divergence of Aspergillus salvadorensis (UES 001 strain) Isolated from the Morazán area of El Salvador and Its Close Relatives(International Journal of Molecular Microbiology, 2025-05-06) Antonio Vàsquez Hidalgo; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThis study presents the taxonomic and genomic description of a new species of fungus, Aspergillus salvadorensis(UES 001 strain), which was isolated in the Morazán area of El Salvador. The research, related to the University of El Salvador (UES), used a polyphase taxonomy perspective that combined morphological analysis and molecular phylogeny based on the ITS marker. The findings of the phylogenetic analysis showed that this species belongs to the Nigri section and has a close evolutionary relationship with Aspergillus nigerand Aspergillus neoniger, but presents enough genetic differences to be considered as an independent species. The registration of this discovery in international databases, such as Fungal Names (FN 573057), supports its scientific integrity. The massive genomic information has been deposited in the NCBI‟s GenBank repository under the identifier PRJNA1365736, establishing the UES 001 strain as the type strain for future research. This work not only contributes to the knowledge of neotropical mycological biodiversity but also provides a fundamental genetic resource for the development of biotechnological applications in the production of industrial enzymes.Item Mechanism of Resistance TAF(II) Protein of Aspergillus salvadorensis to Oxidative Stress in its Environment(PSM Microbiology Journal, 2026-05-06) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svIn this study,bioinformatics analysis of the protein sequences of the Aspergillus salvadorensisgenome was carried out, with the aim of identifying key proteins that participate in metabolic, structural and regulatory processes. Through functional annotation tools and comparison with protein databases, several proteins with relevant biological functions were found, including ferrochelatase, the mitochondrial transporter of thiamine pyrophosphate, annexins and hydrolytic enzymes such as endo-β-1,4-glucanase. These proteins play critical roles, such as heme biosynthesis, mitochondrial energy metabolism, cellular homeostasis, and remodeling of the fungal cell wall. Comparative sequence analysis showed that many of these proteins are very similar to those of other filamentous fungi, especially Neurospora crassa, indicating a strong evolutionary conservation of genes involved in essential metabolic pathways. In addition, proteins related to the regulation of gene transcription were identified, such as the TAF(II) subunit of the TFIID complex, which helps initiate RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription and regulates gene expression in the face of changes in the environment. This protein allows A. salvadorensisto precisely control the production of industrial enzymes and secondary metabolites, ensuring that they are generated at the right timeand place within the cell. The hydrolytic enzymes detected also suggest that the fungus has a strong ability to remodel its cell wall and possibly to degrade complex polymers present in its environment. This characteristic is common in filamentous fungi that live in environments rich in organic matter, where biomass degradation is key to obtaining nutrients. The results show that A. salvadorensis has a complex metabolic and regulatory network, which allows it to adapt to the environment, grow efficiently and resist certain antifungal compounds. Likewise, its repertoire of enzymes and specialized metabolic systems highlights its potential biotechnological value, with applications in biodegradation, production of industrial enzymes and studies of molecular biology of fungi.Item Immunoinformatic-Genomic Analysis of the ORF69 Protein Located in the Capsule of Aspergillus salvadorensis for the Design of Vaccines, University of El Salvador (2025-2026)(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, 2025-04-30) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svBioinformatic scrutiny of the genome of Aspergillus salvadorensis has led to the discovery of ORF69, a sequence that stands out for its strategic potential in the fields of structural biology and fungal immunology. This open reading frame, with an extension of 281 amino acid residues, not only has a biologically coherent length for effector proteins, but also has a highly organized molecular architecture. Its topology integrates a clearly defined N-terminal signal peptide, which guarantees its translocation through the secretory pathway to the outside of the cell, positioning it as a surface protein. The relevance of this candidate is reinforced by the identification of multiple glycosylation motifs, elements that in the genus Aspergillus act as critical antigenic determinants. These residues not only stabilize the conformation of the protein in the extracellular environment, but also facilitate recognition by innate immunity receptors, such as C-type lectins, mediating direct communication with the host's immune system. The statistical robustness observed in the analysis with ORFfinder, where ORF69 is positioned as a dominant and conserved sequence, underscores its viability as a target for reverse vaccinology. This approach allows us to propose ORF69 as a central piece in the pathogen-host interaction, with the ability to induce protective immune responses of the Th1 or Th17 type. The prediction of potential antigenic epitopes of both T cells and B cells in international IEDB PROGRAMS (MHC-II binding prediction) for BepiPred/ABCpred/Emini T cell epitopes for B cell epitopes, the potential allergen with Allergome. Therefore, this finding transcends simple genomic mapping, as it establishes a scientific platform for the creation of new biotechnological tools. From the design of high-specificity diagnostic tests to the development of targeted immunotherapies, the recognition of these cell wall antigens opens a promising route to combat infections caused by this specimen, consolidating our understanding of the A. salvadorensis proteome and its clinical relevance. Keywords: ORF69, Aspergillus salvadorensis, Type Th1, Th17, Vaccines, Epitopes.Item Functional and Metabolic Characterization of the Genome of Aspergillus salvadorensis Based on the Distribution of COG Categories (2026(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, 2026-04-30) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svFrom the term EggNOG summary: Orthology Frequency within COG (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) Categories. The functional and metabolic characterization of the genome of Aspergillus salvadorensis by means of the analysis of COG categories allowed the identification of the main cellular, metabolic and genetic regulation processes associated with this fungal species. The analysis revealed a wide functional diversity, highlighting the high proportion of genes classified within the category of unknown functions, with a total of 185 sequences, which suggests the existence of metabolic pathways not yet described and potential biotechnological applications. This high representation of uncharacterized genes is common in emerging filamentous fungi and suggests that A. salvadorensis may possess unique adaptive mechanisms associated with the degradation of complex compounds and survival in tropical environments. Among the most representative functional categories were those related to the storage and processing of genetic information, including transcription (64 genes), ribosomal translation and biogenesis (63 genes), as well as DNA replication, recombination and repair (39 genes). These results indicate the presence of a highly active and efficient molecular machinery in the regulation of gene expression, which suggests a high capacity to respond to variable environmental conditions. Likewise, the significant presence of genes associated with post-translational modification, protein turnover and chaperones (30 genes) evidences the existence of robust mechanisms of protein control and adaptation to cellular stress. Metabolic analysis also showed an important representation of genes involved in energy production and conversion (47 genes), carbohydrate metabolism (45 genes), and amino acid metabolism (43 genes), reflecting remarkable metabolic versatility. These characteristics are consistent with the ability of fungi of the genus Aspergillus to degrade complex organic materials and participate in biogeochemical cycles. In addition, the presence of genes related to the metabolism of lipids, nucleotides, coenzymes, and inorganic ions suggests a comprehensive and highly regulated metabolism, capable of adapting to various nutrient sources. In relation to cellular processes, genes associated with intracellular trafficking, vesicular secretion and transport (18 genes), as well as signal transduction mechanisms (21 genes) and cell envelope biogenesis (13 genes) were identified. These functions are essential for extracellular enzyme secretion and structural adaptation to adverse environmental conditions, reinforcing the potential of A. salvadorensis as an efficient degrading organism of natural and synthetic polymers. Likewise, the presence of genes related to the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (8 genes) suggests the possible production of bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical, industrial and environmental applications. Conclusion, The functional distribution suggests that Aspergillus salvadorensis presents a complex genetic architecture associated with environmental adaptation, degradation of compounds and production of metabolites of biotechnological interest. Metabolic diversity, together with specialized cellularItem Hydrolytic Enzymes in the DNA-Seq Illumina Genome of Aspergillus salvadorensis in the Degradation of Complex Polymers in Tropical Ecosystems (2024-2025)(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, 2025-04-30) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svBioinformatic analysis of the genome of Aspergillus salvadorensis allowed the identification of an extracellular hydrolase with an unusual structural organization. Unlike typical enzymes, this protein has a segmented arrangement, marked by repetitive sequences (such as AHNTKDSN...), which seem to act as boundaries between different functional domains. This particular architecture suggests an internal specialization that allows it to perform multiple functions within the same molecule. At the protein level, a catalytic triad composed of serine, histidine and aspartate was identified, a distinctive feature of serine hydrolases and glycosyl hydrolases. This configuration favors its activity in slightly acidic conditions, with an optimal pH range between 5.5 and 6.0, which coincides with environments where many fungi usually develop. The protein also has characteristics that ensure its correct functionality outside the cell. A hydrophobic signal peptide at the N-terminal end directs its secretion towards the extracellular medium, while multiple N-glycosylation sites contribute to stabilize its structure, protecting it against adverse conditions such as high temperatures or the action of other degradative enzymes. The degradation of biomass, this enzyme stands out for its functional versatility. The presence of metal-binding domains and motifs associated with antibiotic resistance indicates that it is a protein with multiple functions. Some of its segments are involved in the degradation of polymers for nutrients, while others could act as beta-lactamases, helping to neutralize antimicrobial compounds produced by competing organisms. Indications of chitinase activity are also observed, suggesting a possible role in the degradation of external fungal structures. This functional repertoire is complemented by the presence of other associated enzymes, such as serine proteases involved in obtaining nitrogen, phosphatases related to energy production under limiting conditions and nucleases that contribute to the maintenance of genetic integrity. Overall, this enzyme system reflects a highly efficient adaptive strategy, which allows the organism not only to nourish itself, but also to defend itself and modify its environment. This remarkable metabolic plasticity facilitates its colonization of different ecological niches and, at the same time, opens up interesting possibilities for its application in bioremediation processes and in the development of biotechnological tools. Keywords: Hydrolases, ORFinder, Aspergillus salvadorensis.Item Temas de investigación con base a secuenciación DNA circular de Aspergillus Salvadorensis en Medicina, Química, Biología, Física, Agronomía, Microbiología. 2026(Universidad de El Salvador. Facultad de Medicina, 2026-04-13) Vásquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svEstas 600 propiedades descubiertas según el análisis KEGG de MACROGEN INC del Aspergillus salvadorensis (o conocido también como A. uessalvadorensis), permiten hacer descubrimientos e investigaciones en los campos de Medicina, Ingeniería química o Agronómica, Química, Física, Biología, Microbiología, Biotecnología etc. Se comparte con el fin de hacer uso científico y académico responsable a la comunidad universitaria en tesis de pregrado, post grado o investigativas entre los docentes y estudiantes. La presente investigación analiza el perfil funcional y enzimático de un modelo biológico basado en datos de ortología de KEGG (KO), con el fin de identificar rutas químicas de interés industrial y biotecnológico. Se aclara que hay innumerables tablas de UniRef, MetaCyc, EggNOG_summary, EggNOW, KEGG y otras. Se autoriza al investigador hacer uso de estas tablas con fines académicos e investigativos para el fortalecimiento y desarrollo de la UNIVERSIDAD DE EL SALVADOR.Item Identification and Characterization of Genetic Loci Associated With Environmental Thermotolerance in Native Strains of Aspergillus salvadorensis (2025)(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences (IKRJAB), 2025-04-12) Antonio Vàsquez Hidalgo; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThermotolerance in Aspergillus salvadorensis is based on an integrated network of molecular and physiological responses activated to heat stress. Genomic analysis showed open reading frames corresponding to atg1, atg7 and atg8 in genes of the ATG system (Autophagy-related genes). These participate in the detection of heat-induced protein damage, autophagosome biogenesis and the recycling of altered macromolecules, contributing to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. The induction of heat shock proteins, particularly Hsp20 and Hsp70, whose overexpression under high temperatures confirms their function as molecular chaperones, was also identified. These stabilize partially denatured proteins, prevent their aggregation and facilitate their functional folding. The presence of HSE-like regulatory sequences (Heat Shock Elements) in promoter regions supports specific transcriptional activation dependent on thermal stimulus. The energy component is also decisive. The detection of ATP synthase subunits, NADPH-dependent enzymes and elements associated with the AMPK-like pathway (AMP-Activated Protein Kinase) indicates an increase in energy demand and metabolic monitoring systems. Sustained ATP production is essential to sustain repair processes, intracellular transport and protein quality control. Without ATP, fungal cells would not be able to respond to extreme temperatures. Heat stress increases the generation of reactive oxygen species, which induces the activation of antioxidant systems such as superoxide dismutase, catalases and peroxidases, together with NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) regeneration mechanisms, configuring a protective redox response. Experimentally, mycelial growth decreases progressively and around 50 °C metacaspases associated with regulated cell death are activated, establishing the physiological limit of thermal tolerance. In conclusion, heat resistance in A. salvadorensis depends on the coordinated interaction between autophagy, chaperones, energy regulation, antioxidant defense and structural remodeling, mechanisms that guarantee its viability in high temperature environments in summer when El Salvador has a tropical savannah climateItem Mechanisms of Antifungal Resistance of ABC Transporator Genes in Aspergillus uessalvadorensis (2025)(KR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences (IKRJAB), 2025-04-08) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio ; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThe present study on Aspergillus uessalvadorensis focuses on the characterization of the molecular mechanisms that give it a high adaptive capacity in highly toxic nvironments. Through a comprehensive genomic workflow, which included sequencing using high-throughput platforms (Illumina), expression analysis using qPCR, and functional annotation in bioinformatics tools such as InterProScan, UniProtKB, tBLASTn, UniRef90, MetaCyc, EggNOG, and KEGG, it was possible to establish a robust relationship between genomic sequencing and the organism's adaptive strategies. The core of this fungus's resistance lies in the expansion and specialization of genes associated with multidrug efflux systems. In particular, the superfamily of ABC transporters (ATP-Binding Cassette), highly specialized membrane proteins that function as active expulsion pumps, stands out. These are composed of transmembrane domains (TMDs), responsible for substrate recognition and transport, and cytoplasmic nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), responsible for ATP hydrolysis that drives the conformational change necessary for transport. In addition, the presence of transporters belonging to the Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) was identified, which operate through electrochemical gradients. This coexistence suggests a strategy of functional redundancy and specialization: while ABC systems participate in the active expulsion of more complex compounds, MFS transporters contribute to cellular homeostasis and the handling of simpler metabolites. A relevant finding is the identification of a large protein (~2450 amino acids) that contains conserved domains associated with transport and regulation. In addition, genes encoding components of the DNA repair system, such as ABC excinuclease subunits, were detected. Although these are not directly involved in the efflux of toxic compounds, they play a crucial role in repairing damage induced by oxidative stress, UV radiation, or other environmental agents. This shows a comprehensive defense system that combines exclusion (eflux) mechanisms with tolerance and genomic repair strategies. From an ecological perspective, factors such as exposure to soils with a high concentration of heavy metals and the intensive use of fungicides could have exerted selective pressure, favoring the expansion of these transport systems. In this sense, the identified transporters would not only be involved in resistance to antifungal compounds, but also in the regulation of ionic homeostasis and adaptation to extreme environments. In mechanistic terms, the operation of ABC transporters can be described as a cyclical process: after the entry of a potentially toxic compound into the cell, the substrate is recognized by the transmembrane domains. Subsequently, the NBD domains hydrolyze ATP (ATP → ADP + Pi), generating the energy necessary to induce a conformational change in the protein, allowing the active expulsion of the compound to the outside of the cell. This mechanism is one of the main barriers to antimicrobial agents. In conclusion, the genomic profile of A. uessalvadorensis reveals a complex and multifactorial molecular architecture oriented to survival in adverse environments. However, although genomic evidence suggests a high potential for resistance, it is imperative to validate these findings through experimental studies,Item Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs) with Specificity Between Species A. uessalvadorensis, A. niger and A. neoniger of the Genus Aspergillus (2024)(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, 2024-11-14) Antonio Vàsquez, Hidalgo; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThe genus Aspergillus, specifically the section Nigri, presents taxonomic challenges due to the existence of cryptic species with almost identical morphologies. In this study, genomic variability was analyzed by identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in sequences of A. uessalvadorensis, comparing them with the A. niger and A. neoniger standards. Using the UGENE platform for multiple sequence alignment (MSA) and phylogenetic reconstruction by distances, significant divergence rates (0.20 to 0.29 substitutions per site) were identified. The results demonstrate that A. uessalvadorensis possesses a unique genetic signature, validating its status as an independent taxonomic entity separate from the classical lineages of the section Nigri. The molecular evidence is conclusive: Aspergillus uessalvadorensis is a distinct genomic entity. The architecture of the phylogenetic tree and the numerical distances obtained exceed the thresholds of intraspecific variation, confirming that the use of SNPs and high-resolution tools such as UGENE is essential for the identification of cryptic species. This finding not only contributes a new species to the mycological catalog of El Salvador, but also establishes a methodological precedent for the resolution of taxonomic conflicts in the Nigri section.Item Autophagy in Aspergillus salvadorensis as an Adaptive Mechanism to Environmental Stress (2024)(IKR Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, 2024-10-15) Antonio Vàsquez, Hidalgo; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svThe survival of eukaryotic organisms depends, to a large extent, on autophagy, a highly conserved cellular process that regulates homeostasis and the stress response in filamentous fungi of the genus Aspergillus. In this study, he focuses on a genomic and functional analysis to locate the autophagy components in Aspergillus salvadorensisin its DNA sequence. After bioinformatic annotations on Illumina platforms in MACROGEN INC, autophagy genes were found in MetaCyc/EggNOG/KEGG/ Uniref90/K/Kegg abstract, solid candidates for fundamental ATG genes were identified, including atg1, atg7, atg8 and atg13 homologues. By closely examining the sequences, we found open reading frames that exhibit the typical structural features of autophagic cycle effector proteins. When analyzing the DNA sequence, a segment between nucleotides 550 and 720 that has regulatory domain properties, which seems to be activated in response to metabolic alert signals. On the other hand, the fragment located between nucleotides 1234 and 1573 showed a clear affinity with Atg8-type proteins. The most relevant thing here is the presence of a preserved wisteria at the C- terminal end; this residue is vital for lipidation and anchoring of the protein to the autophagosome membrane, confirming that A. salvadorensis possesses the machinery necessary to form and mature these cleansing vesicles. From a physiological point of view, the synergy between autophagy, heat shock proteins (HSPs) and antioxidant systems explains the remarkable thermotolerance of this species. When the temperature rises above 60 C and exposure to hydrogen peroxide to 10%, protein damage increases; while the chaperones try to repair what can be saved, the autophagic pathway removes irrecoverable waste to prevent the accumulation of toxic structures inside. Overall, genomic data suggest that this species has a robust and active cellular recycling network, a determining factor for its resilience in the demanding tropical savannah climates of El Salvador.Item Prevalencia de metabolitos secundarios diana clústeres cancerígenos en la secuencia DNA circular de Aspergillus salvadorensis a Aflatoxinas.(IKR Microbiology, 2026-03-03) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svObjetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de genes precursores clústeres de cáncer en la especie A. salvadorensis, utilizando la base de datos secuenciada por MACROGEN INC Kore del Sur por el método la secuenciación de DNA circular por Illumina del método Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing (NGS) diseño de 67M spots, 9.9G bases y 4.3Gb. Utilizó el siguiente método: MetaPhlAn4, en donde se recopiló toda la información genética que puedan tener los microorganismos identificados a través de una base de datos validada y para los genes que no están en la base de datos se tradujo en secuencias de proteínas y se comparan con una base de datos de proteínas como UniRef90, aunque no identifican moléculas anticancerígenas solamente los genes precursores esto se hace por métodos de laboratorio como HPLC o ELISA. La investigación es un diseño descriptivo de corte transversal con un nivel alfa 0.005%. llevándose a cabo en los laboratorios de microbiología de la Facultad de Medicina y en MACROGEN INC de Korea del Sur. Se utilizaron programas de bioinformática BLAST, CLUSTAL, GENBANK, M11, UGENE, T-COFEE incluyendo PHYTON. No se utilizarán sujetos humanos en la investigación. Los lotes de semillas fueron sometidos a un análisis de luz ultravioleta (UV), Este método cualitativo de laboratorio, simple y rápido sirvió como una primera aproximación para identificar la posible presencia de Aflatoxinas que luego se confirmó con el análisis de genes en la secuenciación. El análisis se centró en la búsqueda de genes clave dentro del clúster de aflatoxinas, como aflC, aflD, aflR y aflS. Conclusiones. En nuestro estudio la prevalencia en la cadena DNA circular positiva a aflatoxinas fue negativa y si es negativa la prevalencia seria de cero. El uso de luz ultravioleta para determinar aflatoxinas es sugestivo para encontrar en cantidades suficientes presentes en las semillas, posible se utilice como para identificar contaminantes a hongos. De las especies más comunes del género Aspegillus que producen aflatoxinas, están: A. flavus, A. pararasiticus, A. nomius, A. ochraceus, A. wentii en condiciones óptimas de temperatura y humedad. La especie A. salvadorensis no tiene capacidad para producir aflatoxinas en dosis toxica y no presenta aflatoxinas cancerígenas según reporte de Macrogen Inc “gene family UniRef90_M2YIY2: Dothistromin biosynthesis regulatory protein aflR, UniRef90_O42716: Aflatoxin cluster transcriptional coactivator aflS genes related to aflatoxin were not detected”.Item Prevalence of Secondary Metabolites Target Carcinogenic Clusters in the Circular DNA Sequence of Aspergillus salvadorensisto Aflatoxins(PSM Journal micrrobiology, 2026-03-04) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svObjective. To determine the prevalence of precursor cancer cluster genes in the species A. salvadorensis, using the database (19) sequenced by MACROGEN INC Kore del Sur by the circular DNA sequencing method by Illumina of the Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing (NGS) method design of 67M spots, 9.9G bases and 4.3Gb. He used the following method: MetaPhlAn4, where all the genetic information that the identified microorganisms may have was collected through a validated database and for the genes that are not in the database it was translated into protein sequences and compared with a protein database such as UniRef90, although they do not identify anticancer molecules, only precursor genes, this is done by laboratory methods such as HPLC or ELISA. Being carried out in the microbiology laboratories of the Faculty of Medicine and in MACROGEN INC of South Korea. Bioinformatics programs BLAST, CLUSTAL, GENBANK, M11, UGENE, T-COFEE including PYTHON were used. Human subjects will not be used in the research. The seed lots were subjected to an ultraviolet (UV) light analysis. This qualitative, simple and fast laboratory method served as a first approximation to identify the possible presence of Aflatoxins which was later confirmed with gene analysis in sequencing. The analysis focused on searching for key genes within the aflatoxin cluster, such as aflC, aflD, aflR and aflS. Conclusions. In our study, the prevalence in the circular DNA chain positive for aflatoxins was negative and if it is negative, does not refer to toxicity, the prevalence would be zero. The use of ultraviolet light to determine aflatoxins is suggestive to find sufficient quantities present in the seeds, possibly used to identify contaminants to fungi. Of the most common species of the genus Aspegillus that produce aflatoxins, are: A. flavus, A. pararasiticus, A. nomius, A. ochraceus, A. wentii in optimal conditions of temperature and humidity. The species A. salvadorensis does not have the capacity to produce aflatoxins in toxic doses and does not present carcinogenic aflatoxins according to the report of Macrogen Inc.2025 "gene family UniRef90_M2YIY2: Dothistromin biosynthesis regulatory protein aflR, UniRef90_O42716: Aflatoxin cluster transcriptional coactivator aflS genes related to aflatoxin were not detected". The prevalence is zero. Aflatoxins are chemical toxins produced by certain fungi, not by genetic sequences. What the report refers to is that no toxins were found in the sequence. Therefore, if the genes are missing, the fungus cannot produce the toxin.Item Propiedades físico-químicas y biológicas de Aspergillus salvadorensis descubiertas en la Universidad de El Salvador(PSM MICROBIOLOGY, 2026-03-03) Vàsquez Hidalgo , Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svEl análisis de las propiedades fisicoquímicas y biológicas de Aspergillus salvadorensis, obtenido mediante secuenciación de ADN realizada por MACROGEN Inc., revela un organismo con un papel ecológico clave y una compleja red de vías metabólicas y de defensa. Como descomponedor saprofito, degrada eficientemente la materia orgánica muerta, incluyendo hojas, madera y restos vegetales, y contribuye al reciclaje de carbono, nitrógeno y minerales, favoreciendo la formación de humus y el mejoramiento natural del suelo. Su metabolismo destaca por su capacidad para degradar polisacáridos mediante glucanasas y celulasas, y por sustentar procesos energéticos como la síntesis del hemo, el metabolismo del inositol y el transporte mitocondrial. A nivel celular, integra vías como la apoptosis y el ciclo celular, esenciales para regular la muerte celular programada al estrés, el crecimiento de hifas y la producción de conidios, además de utilizar vías de meiosis para la formación de ascosporas. Las vías asociadas al citoesqueleto explican el transporte intracelular y la polaridad que permiten el crecimiento dirigido. Contra el estrés oxidativo, despliega una robusta defensa basada en melanina y pigmentos antioxidantes, junto con enzimas como catalasas, glutatión peroxidasas, peroxirredoxinas y tiorredoxinas. Estas actúan en conjunto con el refuerzo de la pared celular, la vía MAPK (HOG), la calcineurina, la PKC, los factores de transcripción Yap1 y Atf1, y metabolitos protectores como el manitol y la trehalosa. Mecanismos adicionales como la reparación del ADN, las chaperonas y los proteasomas aseguran la supervivencia bajo estrés. En conclusión emplea una amplia gama de enzimas, proteínas y metabolitos secundarios que aseguran su resistencia y adaptación en entornos de estrés oxidativo. Tiene una notable capacidad para sobrevivir y prosperar en condiciones ambientales cambiantes, gracias a su capacidad de adaptarse metabólicamente, defenderse del estrés oxidativo y regular su crecimiento. Sus propiedades fisicoquímicas, como la producción de melanina y la capacidad de degradar polisacáridos, lo hacen clave en los procesos de descomposición de la materia orgánica y el reciclaje de nutrientes en los ecosistemas.Item Presencia de enzimas y metabolitos secundarios clusters en secuencia ADN de Aspergillus salvadorensis 1 en la producción de pigmentos negros naturales.(IKR, 2025-03-03) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svObjetivo. Determinar por el método Next-Generation Sequencing Illumina identificar los genes relacionados a la pigmentación del hongo en la secuenciación DNA de enzimas y metabolitos secundarios. Así como en determinar las características fenotípicas y genotípicas en general la especie A. uesalvadorensis. Metodología. Para la identificación de genes clusters en enzimas, proteínas y metabolitos secundarios, MACROGEN Para la identificación de genes clusters en enzimas, proteínas y metabolitos secundarios MACROGEN utilizaron los siguientes sistemas: el sistema EggNOG summary: Orthology Frequency within COG (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) Categories en la lectura de secuenciación. MetaCyc: Database offering detailed information on metabolic pathways, enzymes, compounds, and reactions, * UniRef: The UniProt Reference Clusters (UniRef) offer clustered sets of sequences derived from the UniProt Knowledgebase, including isoforms, and selected UniParc records, EggNOG: Relative Abundance in Hierarchical Categories of COG(Clusters of Orthologous Groups) using CPM, KEGG Orthology (KO) y KEGG summary: Orthology Frequency within Main and Sub-Categories. DNA-seq. Conclusiones. Se encontraron 14 enzimas y metabolitos secundarios en la producción de pigmentos negros producidos por el hongo por stress oxidativo.Item Metabolitos secundarios Clusters en el ADN y su caracterización fenotípica y genotípica de Aspergillus salvadorensis en semillas de Nacascol. El Salvador. 2006/2024(IKR, 2026-03-03) Vàsquez Hidalgo, Antonio; antonio.vasquez@ues.edu.svLos metabolitos secundarios y las técnicas de ADN molecular de estudios fenotípico y genotipico permitieron la identifi-cación de la muestra de Aspergillus enviada a MACROGEN SOUTH KOREA. Objetivo: Realizar la caracterización fenotípica y genotípica del género Aspergillus mediante el método de secuenciación de nueva generación (NGS). Metodología: El tipo de estudio es exploratorio y experimental. Se realizó en dos fases: primero en la recolección de semillas de Caesalpinia coriaria y segundo se realizó una caracterización macroscópica y microscópica inicial del aislamiento de Aspergillus en 2006, se realizó un acta notarial en 2007, estudios de microscopía simple y microscopía electrónica de barrido y PCR del hongo encontrado en México 2008 y publicado en la revista La Universidad en 2008, luego la extracción de ADNg, qPCR, ADNc se realizó en 2024 en MACROGEN INC. por Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing Reports. Resultados: Se extrajo el genoma del ADNg ob-teniendo una concentración máxima de 12.297 ng/ul, volumen 30 ul, cantidad total 0.369 y DIN 6.4 nivel máximo 8732 inten-sidad de muestra para 15000 pb, el qDNA cuántico se obtuvo a 624 pb a una concentración de 103.24 nM y 41.87 ng/ul y ADNc. A partir de la extracción de ADNg del TapeStation gDNA Screen, se obtuvo una concentración máxima de 12.297 ng/ul, volumen 30 ul, cantidad total 0.369 y DIN 6.4 nivel máximo 8732 intensidad de muestra para 15000 pb en control de calidad. Se obtuvieron qPCR 624 pb a una concentración de 103,24 nM y 41,87 ng/ul con la biblioteca de ADN TruSeq Nano (350_META). Se utilizaron 33 kits de biblioteca de ADNc. El total, de bases obtenidas fueron 11.705.895.990 pb, el total, de lecturas fueron 77.522.490. Contenido de nucleótidos de GC % 49.7 y AT % 50.30, el contenido de base de GC fue 49.7% y AT fue 50.3, contenido de base métrica Q 20: 95.1 y Q 30: 88.3, calidad de datos del ciclo Q30 de alto valor. Se utilizaron los forma-tos FASTQ y FASTA para la codificación y secuenciación completa de pares de bases. Valor de datos sin procesar. 38.761.245 N, calidad del adaptador y recorte. (Calidad y ajuste del adaptador.) fue de 32.535.420, la eliminación de contaminantes fue de 30.961.740. A partir de la taxonomía Krona, se informó de Aspergillus variedades de especies. Conclusiones: Tiene varias vías metabólicas únicas que le permite producir colorantes específicos, esto sería una característica que podría justificar su clasificación como una nueva especie, ya que esta habilidad podría ser el resultado de una evolución local en respuesta a condiciones ambientales particulares. En estudios previos en 2006 se denominó la especie salvadorensis. Se encontraron 14 enzimas y metabolitos secundarios en la producción de pigmentos negros producidos por el hongo por estrés oxidativo.